This Week in History

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CWA # 1285, 24 April 2024
This Week in History
17 April 1895: The Treaty of Shimonoseki ends the first Sino-Japan War (1894-95)

  Nupur Priya

On 17 April 1895, the Qing Dynasty of China, long considered a regional giant, signed the Treaty of Shimonoseki, marking a humiliating defeat at the hands of a rapidly modernizing Japan. This treaty, which ended the first Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), was a significant turning point in East Asia's regional order.

What led to the War?
Before the War, for over two centuries, Japan remained isolated under the Tokugawa Shoguns during the Edo period (1603-1868), fearing foreign influence by restricting trade with Westerners through the 1636 Act of Seclusion. The Meiji Restoration (1868) toppled the shogunate and ushered in a new era of radical modernization. China's Qing Dynasty also attempted reforms during this same period. Still, their efforts to modernize military and political structures were less successful, setting the stage for a future clash with the newly modernized Japan.

The War was primarily fought between Qing China and Meiji Japan over control and influence in Korea. It erupted not just from a single spark but from a tinderbox of complex and interwoven causes covering geopolitics, internal weaknesses, and competing visions for regional dominance.

First, at the heart of the conflict, Korea was a strategically crucial peninsula. Korea had been a tributary state to China for centuries, but its geographical proximity and resource potential made it increasingly attractive to Japan. The Meiji Restoration in Japan saw a surge in nationalism and a desire for regional influence. With its rich resources and access to trade routes, Korea became a prime target for Japanese expansion. Throughout the 19th century, China and Japan competed for influence over Korea. Japan sought to modernize Korea and establish it as a satellite state, while China attempted to maintain its traditional suzerainty over the Korean peninsula. Tensions escalated as both increased their military presence in Korea and manoeuvred to install pro-Chinese or pro-Japanese factions in the Korean government.

Second, Japan's rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration in 1868 allowed it to emerge as a formidable regional power, challenging China's traditional dominance in East Asia. Japan's modernization efforts included the establishment of a strong centralized government, the development of a modern military, and the acquisition of Western technology.

Third, the internal decline of the Qing Dynasty and external pressures. China's defeat in the Opium Wars (1839-1842, 1856-1860) with Britain and the subsequent imposition of unequal treaties exposed the weaknesses of the Qing government and undermined its legitimacy. The Treaty of Nanjing required China to pay Britain a large indemnity, cede Hong Kong Island to the British and increase the number of trading ports with Britain. The Treaty of the Bogue gave extraterritoriality to the British and gave Britain the most favoured nation status. The Treaty of Tianjin provided residence in Beijing for foreign envoys, the opening of several new ports to Western trade and residence, the right of foreign travel in the interior of China, and freedom of movement for Christian missionaries. Besides, corruption, inefficiency, and internal rebellions further weakened the Qing Dynasty, leaving China vulnerable to external threats.

Fourth, the immediate triggers for the War - the Gapsin Coup (1884) and the Donghak Rebellion (1895) in Korea. During the coup, pro-Japanese reformers attempted to overthrow the Korean government. Although the coup failed, it intensified the rivalry between China and Japan over Korean affairs. The Donghak Rebellion in Korea sought to overthrow the Korean government and expel foreign influence, which provided both China and Japan a pretext to intervene. China dispatched troops to suppress the rebellion, while Japan saw an opportunity to assert its influence in Korea and sent its forces.

What were the major events of the War?
The military dynamic was asymmetrical. Japan possessed a more disciplined and technologically advanced military than the Qing forces, which were hampered by corruption, outdated tactics, and inadequate infrastructure. Japan's army and navy, equipped with modern weaponry, held a significant advantage over the numerically superior but poorly organized Chinese troops.

The War unfolded in a series of decisive battles on land and sea. Japanese forces swiftly gained control of Korea and scored significant victories in the Battle of Pyongyang (September 1894) and the Battle of Jiuliancheng (October 1894). The Chinese navy suffered a humiliating defeat at the Battle of the Yalu River (September 1894), where Japan's superior naval tactics and firepower proved decisive.

In early 1895, Japan launched a successful blockade of the Liaodong Peninsula, leading to the Siege of Weihaiwei, a major Chinese naval base. After a prolonged siege, the Chinese garrison surrendered to Japanese forces in February 1895, dealing a severe blow to China's military capabilities. The invasion of Shandong, China's territory, further demoralized the Qing Dynasty and compelled it to sue for peace.

What was the Treaty of Shimonoseki all about?
Peace negotiations started officially on 20 March at Shimonoseki in Japan. The Treaty of Shimonoseki, which had 11 articles, ended the conflict under which China recognized "the full and complete independence of Korea"; and ceded the island of Taiwan, the adjoining Pescadores islands and the southern portion of Liaodong Peninsula in Manchuria (however, Liaodong Peninsula was returned to China by the Triple Intervention of Russia, France and Germany). The treaty also made the Chinese pay substantial war indemnities to Japan and gave Japan trading privileges on Chinese territory.

What were the major fallouts of the War?
First, the rise of Japan. The treaty forced China to relinquish Korea, cede territories of Taiwan and other islands, and pay a steep price. On the contrary, a new sun rose in Japan, with impressive military prowess and fueled its expansionist ambitions. Japan's victory solidified its position as a rising power in Asia. China's defeat had a domino effect in the form of internal revolutionary movements in China, which eventually toppled the Qing Dynasty.

The War marked Japan's emergence as a major imperial power in East Asia. The acquisition of Taiwan, a colonial possession, provided Japan with valuable economic resources and strategic advantages. Moreover, Japan's successful modernization efforts and military prowess garnered international recognition, challenging Western perceptions of Asian inferiority and establishing Japan as a dominant force in the region.

Second, the decline of the Qing dynasty. For China, the loss of prestige accelerated the decline of the Qing dynasty, contributing to internal unrest and ultimately leading to the Chinese Revolution of 1911, which overthrew the imperial system. The Treaty of Shimonoseki caused territorial losses to China and gave a significant blow to China's sovereignty and territorial integrity, exacerbating nationalist sentiments and fueling anti-government protests.

Third, triggering rivalries and tensions in East Asia, setting the stage for future conflicts and territorial disputes. Japan's territorial expansion and growing influence in Korea and other parts of Asia alarmed neighbouring countries, particularly Russia and the Western powers, leading to increased competition for influence in the region.

Fourth, implications for Korea. The War saw Korea caught in the crossfire between China and Japan. Following the War, China recognized Korea's independence, but it soon became a protectorate of Japan, eventually annexed by Japan in 1910. This marked the beginning of a period of Japanese colonial rule in Korea, characterized by cultural suppression and economic exploitation.

Fifth, a new balance of power in East Asia. The War signalled a shift in the balance of power in East Asia, with Japan emerging as a dominant regional player challenging China's hegemony. This power shift had profound implications for the region, shaping alliances and conflicts in the decades to come.

About the author
Nupur Priya is a postgraduate student at the Department of Politics and International Studies at Pondicherry University.

In the series:
17 April 1975: Khmer Rouge captures Phnom Penh in Cambodia, establishing the Pol Pot regime
16 April 1917: Lenin issues “April Theses”
04 April 1968: Martin Luther King Jr assassinated
18 March 2014: Russia annexes Crimea
14 March 1879: Albert Einstein born in Germany
14 March 1849: The Sikh Army surrenders to the British
12 March 1918: Lenin shifts the capital to Moscow
11 March 1985: Mikhail Gorbachev becomes the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union

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